Countries of the world: Japan

Japan ( 日本/日本国, Nihon or Nippon, officially Nihon-koku or Nippon-koku ) is an in . Located in the , it lies to the east of , , and , stretching from the in the north to the in the south. The that make up literally means "the sun's origin", thus Japan is also sometimes known as the self-identified "The Land of the Rising Sun", a name that comes from the country's eastward position relative to mainland .

Its and largest city is .
At 377,872 (145,898 ), Japan is the sixty-second . It encompasses over 3,000 , the largest of which are , , and .

Most of Japan's islands are , and many are , including the highest peak, . It has the world's , with nearly 128 million people. The , with over 30 million residents, is the in the world.

research indicates that people were living on the islands of Japan as early as the period. The first written mention of Japan begins with brief appearances in texts from the 1st century . Japanese history has been marked by alternating periods of long isolation and radical influence from the outside world.

Its culture today is a mixture of outside influences and internal developments. Since it adopted its on , , Japan has maintained a with an and an elected parliament, the , which is one of the oldest legislative bodies in .
The first signs of civilization appeared around with the culture, characterized by a to semi-sedentary lifestyle of pit dwelling and a rudimentary form of .

The Jomon people made decorated clay vessels, often with plaited patterns. Some of the oldest surviving examples of in the world may be found in Japan.
The , starting around 300 BC, marked the influx of new practices such as farming and and -making brought by migrants from continental .

Japan first appears in written history in 57 AD, in China's , as "the people of , formed from more than one hundred tribes." In the 3rd century, according to China's , the most powerful kingdom in Japan was called , and was ruled by the legendary .
The , from the 3rd century to the 7th century, saw the establishment of a dominant polity centered in the area whence arose the lineage.

The kingdom of introduced to Japan, and it was promoted by the Japanese ruling class. (Japan provided Baekje with military support. ) devoted his efforts to the spread of and in Japan.

He is credited with bringing relative peace to Japan through the proclamation of the .
Starting with the of 645, the Yamato court intensified the adoption of Chinese cultural practices and reorganized the government and the penal code based on the Chinese administrative structure of the time. This paved the way for the dominance of philosophy in Japan till the 19th century.

This period also saw the first use of the word Nihon (日本, Nihon ) as a name for the emerging state.
The of the 8th century marked the first emergence of a strong Japanese state, centered around an imperial court in the city of . The imperial court then moved briefly to , and then to Heian-kyō (now ).

Historical writing in Japan culminated in the early 8th century with the epic chronicles, the and the . These two chronicles give a legendary account of Japan's beginnings. According to them Japan was founded in 660 BC by , a descendant of the deity (the Sun Goddess).

Emperor Jimmu is said to be the ancestor of the that remains unbroken to this day. Historians, however, believe the first emperor who actually existed was , though the date of his reign is uncertain.^{[ ]}
In the , from 794 to 1185, a distinctly indigenous culture emerged, noted for its , especially and . In the early 11th century, wrote the world's oldest surviving novel, . The 's regency dominated politics during this period.

Japan's era was characterized by the emergence of a ruling class of warriors, the . In 1185, following the defeat of the rival , was appointed and established a base of power in . After Yoritomo's death, another warrior clan, the , came to rule as regents for the shoguns.

The managed to repel in 1274 and 1281, with assistance from a storm that the Japanese interpreted as a , or Divine Wind. The Kamakura shogunate lasted another fifty years and was eventually overthrown by in 1333. The succeeding failed to manage the feudal warlords the and a civil war erupted.

The (1467 to 1477) is generally regarded as the onset of the "Warring States" or .
During the 16th century, traders and from reached Japan for the first time, initiating the ("southern barbarian") period of active commercial and cultural exchange between Japan and the West. conquered numerous other daimyo by using European technology and , and had almost unified the nation when he was assassinated in the " " in 1582.

succeeded Nobunaga and united the nation in 1590. Hideyoshi , but was thwarted by and Chinese forces. Following several defeats and Hideyoshi's death, Japanese troops were withdrawn in 1597.

After Hideyoshi's death, utilized his position as the regent of Hideyoshi's son as well as the conflicts among loyalists of the , to gain the support of warlords from across Japan. When open war broke out, he defeated rival clans in the in 1600. Ieyasu was appointed in 1603 and established the at (modern ).

After defeating Toyotomi clan, at the in 1614 and 1615, the Tokugawas became rulers of Japan, setting up a centralized feudal system with the Tokugawa shogunate at the head of the . After Ieyasu, the enacted a variety of measures to control the , among them the policy of enforced rotation between fiefs and attendance in Edo. In 1639, the shogunate began the isolationist ("closed country") policy that spanned the two and a half centuries of tenuous political unity known as the .

This is often considered to be the height of Japan's medieval culture. The study of Western sciences, known as , continued during this period through contacts with the enclave at in . The Edo period also gave rise to .

Literally translated, this means "Japanese studies," though it more correctly is represented by the study of native Japan by the Japanese themselves. is a who advocated . His thought had a strong influence on and .

On , , Commodore and the " " of the forced the opening of Japan to the West with the . The of 1867-1868 led to the resignation of the shogunate, and the established a government centered around the emperor. Japan adopted numerous Western institutions, including a modern government, legal system and military.

Japan introduced a modeled after the , with as first Prime Minister in 1882.
The reforms helped transform the into a and embarked on a number of military conflicts to increase access to natural resources with victories in the (1894-1895) and the (1904-1905). That was the first time that an Asian country had defeated a European imperial power.

By 1910, Japan controlled and the southern half of . Next year, the Japan had signed with western powers were cancelled.
The early 20th century saw a brief period of " " overshadowed by the rise of and .

enabled Japan, which fought on the side of the victorious Allies, to expand its influence in Asia and its territorial holdings in the Pacific. In 1920 Japan joined the and became a member of its security council. Japan continued its expansionist policy by occupying in 1931.

The ensuing criticism from the League prompted its withdrawal in 1933. In 1936, Japan signed the with , later joining the alliance in 1941.
Japan subsequently attacked the rest of China, starting the (1937-1945), as well as many countries and islands in and the .

As a result of Japan's actions, an oil embargo and other actions were put in place by the western nations, such as the , the and the . On December 7, 1941, Japan in and declared war on the , the and the . This brought the USA into the war, with subsequently declaring war on the United States four days later.

, Japan's forces in the occupied lands under its control were destroyed or neutralized. As American forces advanced toward Japan, it was able to employ its bomber forces more effectively against the Japanese.

of cities like and commenced, which directly resulted in the of and . These attacks killed several hundred thousand Japanese, and brought about an early end to the war. After the atomic bombings, Imperial Japan agreed to an .

The was signed on , ( ). The (on , ) was convened to prosecute Japanese leaders for as well as war crimes such as the . Other war crimes were treated in the local tribunals held in the Asia-Pacific region.

Emperor received immunity from prosecution and retained his position as emperor.
The war cost Japan millions of lives and left much of the country's industry and infrastructure destroyed. In 1947, Japan adopted a new , seeking international cooperation and emphasizing human rights and democratic practices.

Official lasted until 1952 and Japan was granted membership of the in 1956. After the American occupation, under a program of aggressive industrial development and with US assistance, Japan achieved to become the second largest economy in the world, with a growth rate averaging 10% for four decades. This ended in the 1990s, when Japan suffered a major recession from which it has since been slowly recovering.

See also: , , and

In academic studies, Japan is generally considered a , based largely upon the British system with strong influences from European continental countries such as Germany and France. For example, in 1896 the Japanese government established Minpō, the , on the French model. With post-World War II modifications, the code remains in effect in present-day Japan.

The (天皇 tennō, literally "heavenly sovereign") is defined by the Constitution as "the symbol of the state and of the unity of the people" and is the head of the and . He is a ceremonial figurehead in a constitutional monarchy and does not wield even emergency . Power is held chiefly by the Prime Minister, and other elected members of the .

Sovereignty is vested in the by the constitution. Although his official status is disputed, on diplomatic occasions the emperor effectively acts as the . is the current emperor and the only reigning emperor in the world.

The states that the nation's "highest organ of state power" is its bicameral , the (Kokkai). The Diet consists of a (Lower House or Shūgi-in) containing 480 seats, elected by popular vote every 4 years or when dissolved, and a (Upper House or Sangi'in) of 242 seats, whose popularly-elected members serve six-year terms. There is universal adult (over 20 years old) , with a for all elective offices.

The (LDP) has been in power since 1955, except for a short-lived formed from its opposition parties in 1993; the largest opposition party is the liberal-socialist .
is the of Japan, although the literal translation of the title is "Prime Minister of the Cabinet". The Prime Minister is appointed by the after being designated by the from among its members, and must enjoy the confidence of the to remain in office.

The Prime Minister is the head of the and appoints and dismisses the Ministers of State, a majority of whom must be Diet members. The current Prime Minister of Japan, since September 2006, is . Although the Prime Minister of Japan is theoretically very powerful, his position is attenuated by the factional nature of Japanese politics and the tendency towards coalition government.

Japanese law was historically heavily influenced by and developed independently during the through texts such as , but has been largely based on the of since the late 19th century. Statutory law originates in Japan's legislature, the National Diet of Japan, with the rubber-stamp approval of the Emperor. Under the current constitution, the Emperor may not veto or otherwise refuse to approve a law passed by the Diet.

Japan's court system is divided into four basic tiers, 438 Summary Courts, one District Court in each prefecture, nine High Courts and the . There is also one Family Court tied to each District Court. The main body of Japanese statutory law is a collection called the Six Codes (六法 roppō).

Japan maintains close economic and military relations with its key ally the ; therefore the serves as the cornerstone of its . For example Japan contributed non-combatant troops to the with the United States and others. Japan is a member state of the and currently serving as a non-permanent member.

It is also one of the " " seeking permanent membership in the Security Council.
Japan is a member of the , the , the " plus three", and a participant in the . It is also the world's second-largest donor of , donating 0.

19% of its in 2004. As member of the G8 Japan maintains cordial relations with most countries as a key trading partner.
Japan has with its neighbors concerning the control of certain outlying islands.

These disputes are in part about the control of marine and natural resources, such as possible reserves of and . Japan also has an ongoing dispute with over its and its and missile programs. Japan has cooperated with the US to build a missile defense system after the North Korean 2006 missile tests.

Japan's military is restricted by of the of 1946, which states that "Aspiring sincerely to an international peace based on justice and order, the Japanese people forever renounce war as a sovereign right of the nation and the threat or use of force as means of settling international disputes." Thus, Japan's current constitution prohibits the use of military force to wage war against other countries.
Japan's military is governed by the (JDA) and primarily consists of the , the , and the .

The military budget of Japan is less than one percent of its , though it is estimated to be the fourth largest in the world at $44.3 billion per year, as of 2005. The forces have been recently used in operations and the marked the first overseas use of its military since .

Japan has forty-seven . Each has an elected governor and legislature, and an administrative bureaucracy. While there exist eight commonly defined , the prefecture is the largest administrative subdivision.

The is further divided into , which have the same powers as cities.
Japan nation is currently undergoing administrative many of the cities, towns, and villages with each other. This process will reduce the number of sub-prefecture administrative regions, and is expected to cut administrative costs.

Japan is a country of islands which extends along the coast of Asia. The main islands, running from north to south, are , (the main island), and . The , in south-west Japan, lies in a chain between the and Kyushū.

In addition, about 3,000 smaller islands may be counted in the full extent of the Japanese . Japan also claims the southern (controlled by ), which are located to the north-east of Hokkaidō.
Japan is the thirtieth in the world.

About 70% to 80% of the country is forested, mountainous, and unsuitable for agricultural, industrial, or residential use, due to the generally steep elevations, climate, and risk of landslides caused by earthquakes, soft ground, and heavy rain. This has resulted in an extremely high population density in the habitable zones that are mainly located in coastal areas. Its location on the , at the juncture of three tectonic plates, gives Japan frequent low-intensity tremors and occasional volcanic activity.

Destructive , often resulting in , occur several times each century. The most recent major quakes are the and the of 1995. are numerous, and have been developed as resorts.

The climate of Japan is predominantly but varies greatly from north to south. Japan's geographical features divide it into six principal climatic zones:

• : The northernmost zone has a temperate climate with long, cold winters and cool summers. is not heavy, but the islands usually develop deep snow banks in the winter.

• : On Honshū's west coast, the northwest wind in the wintertime brings heavy snowfall. In the summer, the region is cooler than the Pacific area, though it sometimes experiences extremely hot temperatures, due to the phenomenon.
• : A typical inland climate, with large temperature differences between summer and winter, and between day and night.

  Precipitation is light.

• : The mountains of the and regions shelter the region from the seasonal winds, bringing mild weather throughout the year.

• : The east coast experiences cold winters with little snowfall and hot, humid summers due to the southeast seasonal wind.

• : The Ryūkyū Islands have a subtropical climate, with warm winters and hot summers. Precipitation is very heavy, especially during the rainy season. are common.

The main begins in early May in Okinawa, and the stationary rain front responsible for this gradually works its way north until it dissipates in northern Japan before reaching Hokkaidō in late July. In most of Honshū, the rainy season begins before the middle of June and lasts about six weeks. In late summer and early autumn, often bring heavy rain.

Japan is home to nine forest which reflect the climate and geography of the islands. They range from in the Ryūkyū and Bonin islands, to in the mild climate regions of the main islands, to in the cold, winter portions of the northern islands.
Japan is the economy in the world in terms of placed behind United States and third after the and if is used.

It is the largest Asian economy by nominal GDP, the second largest after China using purchasing power parity. It's also the world's largest international creditor .
Close - cooperation, a strong , mastery of , and a comparatively small have helped Japan advance with extraordinary speed to become the second largest economy in the world.

From the 1960s to the 1980s, overall real economic growth : a 10% average in the 1960s, a 5% average in the 1970s, and a 4% average in the 1980s.

Growth slowed markedly in the 1990s largely due to the after-effects of and domestic policies intended to wring speculative excesses from the stock and real estate markets.

Government efforts to revive economic growth have met with little success and were further hampered in 2000 to 2001 by the slowing of the global economy.
However, the economy saw signs of strong recovery in 2005. GDP growth for the year was 2.

8%, with an annualized fourth quarter expansion of 5.5%, surpassing the growth rates of the US and during the same period. Unlike previous recovery trends, domestic consumption has been the dominant factor in leading the growth.

Hence, the Japanese government predicts that recovery will continue in 2006.
Distinguishing characteristics of the Japanese economy include the cooperation of manufacturers, suppliers, distributors, and banks in closely-knit groups called (examples include , , , , and ); the powerful enterprise unions and ; cosy relations with government bureaucrats, and the guarantee of (shushin koyo) in big corporations and highly factories. Recently, Japanese companies have begun to abandon some of these norms in an attempt to increase profitability.

The country has very limited to sustain economic development, since most of the islands are volcanic and mountainous. As a result it is dependent on other nations for most of its raw materials.
Japan holds large and commanding world market share in industries such as , , industrial chemicals, machine tools, and in recent years along with the .

has long been one of Japan's largest industries, with the help of multi-billion dollar government contracts in the civil sector.
Japanese financial sector is one of the largest in the world, and it is home to some of the largest companies, and . The large (business groups), the multinational companies such as , , , own billion and trillion operating , and/or financial services such as , , , , , etc.

(see also ). For instance Japan is home to the world's largest company the that has an of around $1.7 .

It's also home to the second largest in the world, the . The of Japan is the . The government ministry of finance is the who operates the who overseas and regulates as necessary the finance of Japan.

Its main are the and .
Japan's service sector accounts for about three-quarters of its total economic output. , , , , , and are all major industries.

One of the largest for instance is .
Japan is a leading nation in the fields of , products, and . Some of its more important technological contributions include , , , , , , and .

For instance Japan leads the world in , having produced , , and , and possesses more than half (402,200 of 742,500) of the world's industrial robots used for manufacturing.
Japan also made headway into research and . It founded the (JAXA) in , and is involved in many missions and projects, as well as a possible independent to the ^{[ ]}, having, from 2005, shifted some of its focus away from efforts. It is also a major contributor to the project, the most significant contribution being the that will complete installation in 2007.
Japan is currently the world's third largest spender in (R D) at $130 billion, after the and .

There are over 677,000 researchers in Japan.
Because only 29% of Japan's land is suitable for cultivation, a system of terrace farming is used to build in small areas. This results in one of the world's highest levels of crop yields per unit area.

However, Japan's small sector is also highly subsidized and protected. Japan must import about 50% of its requirements of and fodder crops other than rice, and relies on imports for most of its supply of .
In fishing, Japan is ranked second in the world behind in tonnage of fish caught.

Japan maintains one of the world's largest fleets and accounts for nearly 15% of the global catch.
Japan is unique in that its runs at different in different parts of the country 50 in Tokyo and elsewhere east of the , 60 Hz in Osaka and other parts west. The division was due to different technology imports for the initial plant construction; the eastern region imported technology (German) and the western region imported technology (US).

The household power line voltage is constant 100 throughout the nation.
Japan has 1,177,278 of paved roadways, 173 , and 23,577 of as of 2004. Transportation is highly developed.

Air transport is mostly operated by (ANA) and (JAL). Railways are operated by among others. There is extensive international flights from many cities and countries to and from Japan.

Export and import is an essential part of the Japanese economy. Overall, Japan's largest trading partner is .
Japan's main export partners are the 22.

7%, 13.1%, 7.8%, 7.

4%, 6.3% and 4.3%.

Japan's main exports are transport equipment, , , electrical machinery and .
As a nation that relies heavily on , Japan also imports a wide variety of goods. Its main import partners are 20.

7%, 14%, 4.9%, 4.3%, 4.

1%, 4.1%, 4% (as of 2004). Japan's main imports are machinery and equipment, , (in particular ), , and raw materials for its industries.

See also:

Japan's population is estimated at around 127,463,611. For the most part, Japanese society is and culturally homogeneous with only small populations of foreign workers, and others. Japan has indigenous minority groups such as the and , and social minority groups like the .

Japan has one of the highest in the world, at 81.25 years of age as of 2006. However, the Japanese population is rapidly aging, the effect of followed by a decrease in births in the latter part of the 20th century.

In 2004, about 19.5% of the population was over the age of 65. The changes in the demographic structure have created a number of social issues, particularly a potential decline in the workforce population and increases in the cost of social security benefits such as the .

If its birth and death rates remain at the current levels, Japan's population has passed its peak and its population will continue to decline. It is expected to drop to 100 million by 2050, and to 64 million by 2100.
Demographers and government planners are currently in a heated debate over how to cope with this problem.

and birth incentives are sometimes suggested as a solution to provide younger workers to support the nation's aging population. Immigration, however, is not popular as recent increased rates are often attributed to foreigners living in Japan both by the National Police Agency and in popular Japanese media. But despite public views on foreigners, the Japanese in general do not mind foreigners in their country^{[ ]}, and this is pointed out when comparing the increasingly common inter-marriage between Japanese and foreigners, but opinions on "rebellious" foreigners are still strong. Ethnic issues are improving, so there is a narrow but strong chance that if more foreigners enter Japan, and decide to marry another foreigner or Japanese resident, this may increase the chance of the population growing again. It is also noted that many Japanese youth are increasingly preferring not to or have families as adults.

See also:

^a 23 municipalities. Also capital of Japan.
^b Government Ordinance City only.

Japan does not legally recognize an ; however, is the de facto official language. Japanese courts are the sole location that define language use: Judicial Code Article 74 states "Japanese will be used in courts".
About 99% of the population speaks Japanese as their first language.

The , also part of the to which Japanese belongs, are spoken in , but few children learn these languages. , the language of the indigenous minority in northern Japan, is moribund, with only a few elderly remaining in . Most public and private schools require students to take courses in both Japanese and English.

The is an distinguished by a system of reflecting the nature of Japanese society, with verb forms and particular vocabulary which indicate the relative status of speaker and listener. There is no consensus on what, if any, linguistic relationship Japanese has with other languages, but scholars continue to the issue.
Japanese incorporates many foreign elements.

Japanese has borrowed or derived large amounts of vocabulary from . When non-Chinese foreign words are written in Japanese, they are usually done so in a separate alphabet called . Since the end of World War II, Japanese has also extensively borrowed from .

The uses ( ) and two sets of ( based on simplified forms of Chinese characters), as well as the and .
84% of Japanese people profess to believe both (the indigenous religion of Japan) and . Buddhism, and from China have significantly influenced Japanese beliefs and mythology.

Religion in Japan tends to be in nature, and this results in a variety of practices such as parents and children celebrating rituals, students praying before exams, couples holding a wedding at a and funerals being held at temples. A minority (0.7%) profess to and other religions (4.

7%) like , , and . Since the mid-19th century, numerous religious sects ( ) have emerged.

See also:

Compulsory education was introduced into Japan in 1872 as a result of the .

Since 1947, compulsory education consists of and , which lasts for 9 years (from age 6 to age 15). Almost all children continue their education at a three-year senior , and, according to basic statics of , 67.5% of high school graduates attend a , , trade school, or other post-secondary institution in .

Japan's education is very competitive especially at the college level and it has prestigious and large universities such as , , , , , , and .
In Japan, healthcare services are provided by national and local governments. Payment for personal medical services is offered through a universal health care insurance system that provides relative equality of access, with fees set by a government committee.

People without insurance through employers can participate in a national health insurance program administered by local governments. Since 1973, all elderly persons have been covered by government-sponsored insurance. Patients are free to select physicians or facilities of their choice.

Japanese has evolved greatly over the years, from the country's original culture to its contemporary hybrid culture, which combines influences from , , and . Traditional include ( , , , , , ), performances ( , , , , ), traditions ( , , , , , ), and .
Post-war Japan has been heavily influenced by American and European culture which has led to the evolution of popular band music (called ).

The fusion of traditional and Western art led to the creation of , a typically Japanese format that is now popular in and even outside Japan. Manga-influenced for television and film is called . have prospered since the 1980s.

The mascot of , " ", is the most popular.
A basic, traditional Japanese meal consists of white with accompanying pickles as appetizers; a bowl of ;selected or combined , , , and dishes known as okazu; and . In a traditional Japanese breakfast, for example, the okazu may be a grilled fish.

Culturally, people start and finish meals with phrases of gratitude as and gochisōsama, respectively. Foods, beverages, and condiments from Japan, such as , , , , , and are recognized worldwide.
Japanese music is eclectic, having borrowed instruments, scales and styles from neighboring cultures.

Many instruments, such as the , were introduced in the ninth and tenth centuries. The accompanied of the drama dates from the fourteenth century and the popular folk music, with the guitarlike , from the 16th.
, introduced in the late nineteenth century, now forms an integral part of the culture, as evident from the profusion of artists.

Modern Japanese music uses western instruments, scales and style.
The earliest works include two history books the and the , and a poetry book in the eighth century, all written in Chinese characters. In the early days of the , the system of transcription known as kana ( and ) was created as phonograms.

is considered the oldest Japanese narrative. An account of Heian court life is given by , written by while by is sometimes called the world's first novel.
During the , literature became not so much the field of the samurai aristocracy as that of the , the ordinary people.

, for example, became popular and reveals this profound change in the readership and authorship.
The Meiji era saw the decline of traditional literary forms, during which Japanese literature integrated western influences. and were the first "modern" novelists of Japan, followed by , , , , and more recently, .

Japan has two authors (1968) and (1994).
Beginning in the twelfth century, Japan developed traditional known as , which were popular among the warrior class. These include , and .

is sometimes considered Japan's and is one of its most popular.
After the , many western sports were introduced and began to spread through the education system. These sports were initially stressed as a form of mental discipline, but Japanese have now come to enjoy them as recreational activities.

is the most popular in Japan - the was established in 1937. One of Japan's most famous baseball players in is , who won a . Concerning , the was established in 1992.

Japan was a venue of the from 1981 to 2004, and Japan co-hosted the with . is popular in Japan, as is , the sports car series and formula racing.
Each year, Japan observes the second Monday in October as .

The date, originally October 10, commemorates the opening day of the in Tokyo. Other major sporting events that Japan has hosted include the in and the in .

Notes

Further reading

• Barry, Dave Barry Does Japan, Ballantine, 1993 ( )
• The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Japan, Cambridge University Press, 1993 ( )
• De Mente, The Japanese Have a Word For It, McGraw-Hill, 1997 ( )
• Henshall, A History of Japan, Palgrave Macmillan, 2001 ( )
• Jansen, The Making of Modern Japan, Belknap, 2000 ( )
• Japan At A Glance, Kodansha, 1998 ( )
• Johnson, Japan: Who Governs?

  , W.W. Norton, 1996 ( )

• Klar, My Mother is a Tractor, Trafford Publishing, 2005 ( )
• Lonely Planet Japan, Lonely Planet Publications, 2003 ( )
• Reischauer, Japan: The Story of a Nation, McGraw-Hill, 1989 ( )
• Sugimoto et al.

  , An Introduction to Japanese Society, Cambridge University Press, 2003 ( )

• Totman, A History of Modern Japan, 2d ed., Blackwell, 2005 ( )
• Van Wolferen, The Enigma of Japanese Power, Vintage, 1990 ( )

Other European monarchies (including the ): ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (*!)
* absolute monarchy, semi-constitutional monarchy, !